It’s complicated
Just like in real life, in the English language there are some words destined to go through life alone, some that that work best in an uncommitted, friends-with-benefits arrangement and others that thrive as part of a steady, committed relationship. If you haven’t already guessed, in this week’s grammar tutorial I’m talking about compounds – pairs of words that are often, but not always, seen together.
The vast majority of compound words consist of either a headword (key word) and a prefix such as ex-husband, semi-detached or anti-establishment, or a headword and a suffix – like phone-in, cool-off or wind-up. Then there are the type most rapidly dying out to commonly become one word: two nouns (book-end or bookend), a noun and verb (joy-ride or joyride) or even two verbs together (dry-clean or dryclean).
Most of these compound words follow group rules, some being hyphenated and some not – although, as always, there are exceptions. So here’s our handy A-Z guide to some of the more common compound words people typically find problematic.
Let’s start by tackling compound words with prefixes:
All- This word combination is usually hyphenated, as in all-important, all-round, all-powerful, all-star and all-inclusive. But, this being the English language, as you might expect there are exceptions. These include all clear and all fours.
Ante- This combo usually appears as one word – antenatal, anteroom, antecedent and antediluvian, for example.
Anti- Always a single word, hyphenated only to avoid ambiguity. Examples include antibiotic, anticlockwise and antifreeze. Exceptions are anti-aircraft, anti-hero and, no doubt, a few I haven’t thought of here.
Back- Generally used as one word: backache, backbone, backdrop, background and backwater, for instance. But back-burner, back-pedal, back seat and back up are among the exceptions.
Bi- Typically appear as a single word as in biannual, biennial, bifocal, bilateral, bilingual and bisexual. Examples include bi-weekly and bi-monthly.
By- Seemingly random rules have been applied to each word in this category. For example, by-election and by-product but bylaw, byword, bypass and bystander.
Co- This is always a single word but sometimes hyphenated when the meaning might otherwise be unclear, for instance in co-opt, co-star and co-author.
Contra- Always one word, as in contraindicate.
Cross- Usually, but not always, hyphenated – cross-country, cross-eyed, cross-legged. Common exceptions include crossbreed, crossroad and crossword.
De- Always a single word, only hyphenated when ‘letter collision’ would be a danger in case like de-ice, de-escalate and de-emphasise.
Die- Another single word with exceptions such as die-cast, die-cut, die-hard and die down.
Ex- Most words beginning with the prefix ex- are single words as in excise, existential and exclude, with two important exceptions: 1) where the meaning is ‘formerly’ it should be hyphenated and 2) those terms derived from Latin such as ex parte and ex gratia where it is expressed as two separate words with no hyphen.
Extra- Most dictionaries now consider it acceptable to drop the hyphen (extracurricular, extraordinary, extramarital) but some words still look clearer with a hyphen – extra-cautious and extra-terrestrial, for example.
Far- Usually hyphenated as in far-off, far-reaching, far-fetched and far-sighted but some exceptions such as Far East, far cry and far and away.
Foot- Always a single word (football, footstool). In fact, the only exception I can think of is foot-and-mouth disease. Let me know if you can think of more!
Full- Usually hyphenated – full-on, full-frontal, full-length – but not always: full house, full board, full time and, of course, full stop.
Get- Generally two separate words – get together, get away, get by, get up – but occasionally one word (getaway) or hyphenated (get-up-and-go).
Go- Either two words – go ahead, go on – or hyphenated as in go-getter, go-kart or go-slow.
Half- Mostly hyphenated as in half-time, half-cocked, half-baked but, again, not always – half board, halfway and half measure.
Hard- I think it’s safest to say that there are no rules with this word. Compounds can either be completely separate words, hyphenated or single words (English is not known to be a complex language to learn for nothing!) so we have hardback and hardship but also hard hat, hard labour and hard line. However, where the prefix is an adjective, it is generally hyphenated as in hard-bitten, hard-pressed and hard-hitting.
In- Generally shown as two separate words (in case, in force) except when the word is used to indicate belonging as in in-depth, in-house or in-law when it is hyphenated. Another exception, as you might guess, is for Latin words and phrases such as in situ and in vitro.
Lay- Usually two words (lay off) with some exceptions (lay-by, layman, layout).
Neo- Nowadays we tend to drop the hyphen (neoclassical) yet we also have neo-colonial and neo-Nazism. A confusing one!
No- Generally hyphenated – no-brainer, no-show or no-nonsense – but with exceptions including nobody, nowhere and no one.
Non- Once always hyphenated (non-delivery, non-existent, non-drinker), there’s now a trend to drop the hyphen: nonstop, nonsensical. Exceptions include non-negotiable, non-smoker and (Latin again) non sequitur. My personal view is that in a few years’ time all the non-Latin exceptions will have vanished.
Off- Usually hyphenated – off-centre, off-licence and off-putting – with exceptions such as offbeat, offcut, offhand, off limits and offside.
On- Increasingly, shown as a single word these days. For example, oncoming, onlooker, online and onset. On-off and on-boarding are among the few exceptions.
Out- Usually one word – outbuilding, outcry, outgoing, outpatient and outlying – with a few exceptions like out-of-doors and out-and-out.
Over- Commonly shown as one word – overreact, overarching, overall, overcharge, overstate and overhear – but still with some exceptions: over-cautious, over-bearing and over-the-counter are some examples.
Per- Nearly always one word with most the exceptions being Latin terms like per se and per annum.
Pre- Usually one word (preconceived, predisposed, preoccupied, prefabricate) but tendency to be hyphenated with proper nouns such as pre-Renaissance.
Pro- Conversely, this tends to be hyphenated when it means ‘in favour of’ as in pro-Brexit, pro-abortion and two separate words when used in the Latin sense (pro rata).
Quasi- Always but always hyphenated as in quasi-official, quasi-scientific and so on.
Re- A single word (reappear) except where this would cause ‘letter collision’ – for instance, re-enter, re-enact) or confusion over its meaning (re-count, re-cover, re-lay).
Self- Invariably hyphenated – self-confident, self-assured, self-serving, self-evident with the only exception we know of being selfsame.
Semi- Generally a single word (semicircle) except where letter collision would occur: semi-conscious, semi-literate are two such examples.
Set- Normally two separate, non-hyphenated words – set piece, set on and set up.
Sub- Mostly one word – subcontinent, subcontractor, subheading – but occasionally two hyphenated words: sub-machine gun, sub-branch and sub-post office (remember those?)
Super- Used to always be one word – superannuated, supermarket – but, increasingly when used for emphasis, as two hyphenated words (see my last post here) as in super-sophisticated, super-cool and so on.
Trans- Generally one word – transparent, transform, transceiver, transcend, transferable, transgender.
Tri- One word – tripartite, triangulate, for example.
Un- Always one word – unbeatable, unwinnable, unsurprising.
Up- Usually one word – upbeat, uphill, upfront, upmarket, upheaval – with the odd exception such as up-and-coming and up-to-date.
Vice- When this prefix denotes a substitute it is usually hyphenated – vice-Chair, vice-captain – but, interestingly, vice president.
In my next post, I’ll cover Compound words with Suffixes so check back soon!
